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Table 4 Associations between migration background and SARS-Cov-2 positive PCR test, adjusted for pre- pandemic factors and intra- pandemic activities.

From: Relative contributions of pre-pandemic factors and intra-pandemic activities to differential COVID-19 risk among migrant and non-migrant populations in the Netherlands: lessons for future pandemic preparedness

Variable

Number per group (N)

Actual population prevalence in

Amsterdam (%)

Model 1

PR (95% CI)

Model 1

PAF (%)

Model 2

PR (95% CI)

Model 2

PAF (%)

Pre-pandemic socio-demographic and medical factors (explanatory factors)

Dutch origin

2038

43.83

1.00 (ref)

ref

1.00(ref)

ref

South Asian Surinamese origin

1316

3.65

1.95(1.68–2.27)

3.35

1.63(1.39–1.93)

2.25

African Surinamese origin

1605

3.65

2.00(1.74–2.31)

3.52

1.71(1.46–2.01)

2.53

Ghanaian origin

501

1.49

1.83(1.49–2.23)

1.22

1.45(1.14–1.83)

0.67

Turkish origin

1578

5.08

2.55(2.23–2.93)

7.30

1.95(1.66–2.32)

4.60

Moroccan origin

1557

8.87

2.80(2.45–3.22)

13.77

2.20(1.87–2.59)

9.62

Pre-pandemic lifestyle factors (explanatory factors)

Dutch origin

2038

43.83

1.00 (ref)

ref

1.00 (ref)

ref

South Asian Surinamese origin

1316

3.65

1.95(1.68–2.27)

3.35

1.79(1.53–2.11)

2.80

African Surinamese origin

1605

3.65

2.00(1.74–2.31)

3.52

1.93(1.66–2.25)

3.28

Ghanaian origin

501

1.49

1.83(1.49–2.23)

1.22

1.64(1.31–2.02)

0.94

Turkish origin

1578

5.08

2.55(2.23–2.93)

7.30

2.29(1.96–2.70)

6.15

Moroccan origin

1557

8.87

2.80(2.45–3.22)

13.77

2.35(1.99–2.78)

10.70

Intra-pandemic COVID-19 risk aggravating activities (explanatory factors)

Dutch origin

206

43.83

1.00 (ref)

ref

1.00 (ref)

ref

South Asian Surinamese origin

151

3.65

1.24(1.05–1.48)

0.87

1.21(1.06–1.46)

0.76

African Surinamese origin

119

3.65

1.22(1.01–1.46)

0.80

1.19(1.05–1.43)

0.69

Ghanaian origin

38

1.49

0.92(0.66–1.24)

NA

0.91(0.62–1.21)

NA

Turkish origin

102

5.08

1.33(1.10–1.61)

1.65

1.31(1.06–1.61)

1.55

Moroccan origin

98

8.87

1.43(1.18–1.73)

3.68

1.39(1.14–1.69)

3.35

Intra-pandemic COVID-19 risk mitigating activities (explanatory factors)

Dutch origin

253

43.83

1.00 (ref)

ref

1.00 (ref)

ref

South Asian Surinamese origin

73

3.65

1.14(1.01–1.42)

0.51

1.18(0.94–1.47)

0.65

African Surinamese origin

95

3.65

1.38(1.20–1.89)

1.37

1.39(1.13–1.69)

1.40

Ghanaian origin

12

1.49

Excluded

Excluded

Excluded

Excluded

Turkish origin

60

5.08

1.50(1.20–1.89)

2.48

1.51(1.19–1.91)

2.53

Moroccan origin

60

8.87

1.49(1.18–1.88)

4.17

1.47(1.13–1.86)

4.00

  1. Actual population prevalence in Amsterdam: obtained from Statistics Netherlands as of 01 January 2021. PR = Prevalence ratio obtained from Poisson regression models with robust standard errors. Outcome variables = proportion with a SARS-CoV-2 positive PCR test (yes or not). PAF = Population attributable fraction calculated from actual prevalence in Amsterdam and prevalence ratios. Confidence intervals for the PAFs were not calculated because we used the actual/precise population figures of Amsterdam (as opposed to estimated prevalence which bear some uncertainty) Mansournia MA, Altman DG. Population attributable fraction. BMJ 2018 Feb 22;360.NA = not applicable. Only applied when PAFs were only calculated when PR was greater than one. Pre-pandemic socio-demographic and medical factors: Analysis conducted in in the total dataset (n = 8595). The data spanned from May 2020 (commencement of mass testing) to September 2021. The factors included in the models were: education + occupation + household size + healthy literacy + history of underlying health conditions Pre-pandemic health-related behaviours: Analysis conducted in in the total dataset (n = 8595). The data spanned from May 2020 (commencement of mass testing) to September 2021. The factors included in the models were: alcohol consumption + tobacco smoking + physical activity + fruit intake. Intra-pandemic COVID-19 risk aggravating activities: Analysis conducted in a subgroup of participants who participated in the COVID-19 serological study (n = 714). The HELIUS COVID-19 serological sub-study data used for current analyses was collected from November 23, 2020, to March 31, 2021 (during the second wave of coronavirus pandemic in the Netherlands). The factors included in the models were: Went for grocery shopping + Visited family or friends + Walked the dog or to played outside with your children + Went outside to get some fresh air or exercise + Went outside to take care of someone, such as informal care or shopping + Went to pick up your medication or to visit the doctor + Visited the church/mosque/place of worship + Visited the cinema, theatre, concert or museum + Visited a catering facility (bar/restaurant) + Exercised indoors (e.g. visited a sports club/gym) + Visited a recreational area (e.g. forest, beach or campsite) + Went outside for any other reason + Used public transport + Received visitors at home + Went to work. Intra-pandemic COVID-19 risk mitigating activities: Analysis conducted in a subset group of participants who responded to the online questionnaire about performing COVID-19 mitigating activities during the coronavirus pandemic. The HELIUS COVID-19 online sub-study data used for current analyses was collected from 27 August 2020 to 29 September 2020 (after the first wave of coronavirus pandemic in the Netherlands). Ghanaians were excluded due to low numbers. The factors included in the models were easiness to regularly wash your hands for 20 s with soap and water + easiness to always cough or sneeze into your elbow (instead of into your hand or in the air) + easiness to always use a paper tissue to wipe or blow your nose (instead of your sleeve or your hand, or a cotton handkerchief) + easiness to stay at home as much as possible + easiness for you to always stay 1.5 m away from other people (except within your family/household) + easiness for you to not visit people whose health is already at risk + easiness for you to not shake hands + easiness for you to wear a face mask. Model 1: adjusted for age + sex. Model 2: Model 1 + (pre-pandemic factors or intra-pandemic activities)
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International Journal for Equity in Health

ISSN: 1475-9276

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