Table 1 Overview of the Jewish communities of Antwerp

Haredi

While Brussels hosts the largest Jewish community in Belgium, Antwerp is known to be home to one of Europe’s largest communities of Haredi Jews (sometimes also referred to as ‘ultra-Orthodox’ Jews). About one third of all Jewish people living in Antwerp are estimated to belong to this group [13].

One important characteristic of the Haredim is a strict adherence to a specific body of Jewish religious laws called the Halacha [14]. These rules strongly organize personal, social and spiritual life in Haredi communities, with reliance on religious leaders (or ‘teachers’) to provide spiritual guidance. These leaders also are well-positioned to advise whether certain practices, under certain circumstances, can be considered kosher (i.e. in line with the Halacha) or not.

The Haredim symbolically manifest the cultural boundaries of their group by a very distinctive dress code, making them a more segregated and visually identifiable group. Men are often bearded, wear a kipah (with or without shtreimel), and cover themselves with long black coats. Haredi women are equally expected to dress modestly, wear skirts, and cover their heads (e.g. with a sheitel) [13].

The community of Haredi Jews consists of many different sub-groups. One of the largest movements is the Hassidic one, comprising different communities (or ‘courts’) based on their geographical origin (e.g. the Hassidic community of Belz, Satmer, Vishnitz etc.) [15]. The community of Belz is numerically the largest Hassidic community in Antwerp.

Orthodox

The term ‘Orthodox’ is used to refer to those who identify themselves as Jewish in a rather conservative way when it comes to the observance of Jewish religious rules. Yet in general, the Orthodox community adopts a more pragmatic and liberal attitude compared to the Haredi group, leaving more space for flexibility and compromise in the application of religious rules in daily life [16].

The limits and boundaries of what constitutes Orthodox Judaism is a matter of debate, as there is an inherent plurality of different Orthodox sub-groups and communities, each having their own unique cultural and religious heritage [17]. Often the term ‘Orthodox’ is used as a popular term encompassing both Haredi and (other) Orthodox Jewish communities.

Secular/traditional

Some community members feel their Jewish identity is not linked to religious faith per se. In the first place, they feel connected through the various common cultural and family traditions that, to them, comprise the feeling of ‘being Jewish’. Rather than experiencing religious obligations, they may participate in religious activities as part of celebrating this tradition. However, others might feel more secular, or even anti-religious [18].

Shomre Hadas

The largest formal Jewish organization in Antwerp is called Shomre Hadas [13]. Most of its members belong to the above described groups of Orthodox and traditional Jews. Each community organizes religious services, maintains their synagogues, provides appropriate burial services, and observes the rules of kosher food preparation.

Machsike Hadas

The Machsike Hadas is a somewhat smaller and in general more conservative organization compared to the Shomre Hadas. It mainly consists of strictly Orthodox and Haredi communities. Also most of the Hassidic groups fall under this larger administrative community.

Sephardic community

This is the smallest Jewish community in Antwerp, which historically has its origins in Portugal.