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Table 2 Various factors influencing the participation rates of women in cervical cancer screening

From: Applying a gender lens on human papillomavirus infection: cervical cancer screening, HPV DNA testing, and HPV vaccination

Factors

Main findings

Knowledge

– a highly consistent factor contributing to higher participation of women in Pap screening [41, 50, 66]

SES

– low socio-economic status is associated with higher cervical cancer rates, lower Pap smear rates, and inadequate follow up [41, 50, 51]

– women age 50+ with higher education are increasingly more up-to-date regarding screening services with each educational level [32]

Healthcare, access to healthcare, insurance

– not having health insurance is associated with not having a recent Pap test in southern US women [41]

– universal healthcare appears to contribute to the reduction of socio-economic status related differences or differences in screening based on residential location [75]

– an older study however showed that social factors discourage Australia's Indigenous women's use of and access to health services for screening, diagnosis and treatment of cervical cancer [24]

Age

– younger women age 19–26 exhibit more knowledge and participate more in preventive practices than women age 40–70 [81]

Marital status

– participation is higher in married women in Kuwait compared to unmarried women [50]

History of cervical infection, family history

– higher prevalence of ever having a Pap test is observed in women with either personal or family history of cancer [50]

Health expert’s willingness to give screening recommendation

– physician's recommendation is one of the strongest predictors of having had a Pap test [41]

Lifestyle

– smokers and obese persons adhere to Pap testing less frequently [49]